In 1997 a lithic assemblage was uncovered that appears to contain the remains of flintknapping from both a skilled and an unskilled individual. Anders Högberg reviews the findings of this site and the implications for determining imitation through play in the archaeological record in the paper, Playing with
Childhood is undoubtedly a cultural construction, as many accounts have demonstrated varying definitions and expectations of what it is to be a child. Therefore, Högberg begins by stating that in order to study childhood within a certain culture, archaeologists must first understand what that culture would define as a child. Although these definitions will inevitably be related to the universal stages of growth and development, these stages may be interpreted differently. If this is the case, archaeologists must also look for signs in the archaeological record that are common to all children and linked to the stages of biological and social development.
Although in the past there has been some debate over whether childhood play is a universally human trait or a culturally related phenomenon, a general consensus has been reached that the form of play is related to culture, but the phenomenon of play is a universal human pattern. If this is the case and the variation in play activities is unlimited, there will be significant difficulty in determining the expression of play in the archaeological record. However, the imitation of adult activities appears to be a consistent behaviour among culturally related play behaviour, providing archaeologists with a possible avenue to determine play in the archaeological record. Imitation serves a dual role as both an enjoyable diversion and a preparation for future integration into the social and economic activities of adults. It acts as a socialization process, and as such, is important in schooling children in the values and norms of the community.
In order to visualize this playful imitation in the archaeological record, one must be able to differentiate the products of skilled and unskilled work, the work must be of a type that can be imitated, and the work must be such that the products of child imitation are different from the original. In terms of lithic assemblages, playful imitation would appear game-like with a non-utilitarian character and would display even less skill than a novice flint knapper. It is important to note that it is not just the simplicity of an assemblage that would warrant its designation as the product of playful imitation, but rather its simplicity relative to a more complex product found in the same context. Based on the Danish Behavioural Replication Study by Mikkel Sørensen, the products of uninstructed imitation will not just appear to be simpler, but will lack all significant technological attributes. The form of the imitation lithics is similar, but the technology is incorrect.
This leads Högberg to conclude that to identify children imitating adults in the archaeological record, archaeologists must look for differences such as systematic vs. unsystematic (ad hoc) technology, selective vs. unselective raw material, and typological form vs. non-typological form.
After this theoretical discussion of playful imitation in the archaeological record, Högberg describes a Neolithic stone tool assemblage south of Malmö, Sweden in which there is convincing evidence of child imitation. The site consists of two large stones embedded in the till and surrounded by roughly 400 flakes. When the flakes were analysed based on typological flake attributes, a distinct pattern developed of two categories of knapping strategies. The first was the systematic removal of flakes in the production of a Scandinavian Neolithic square-sectioned flint axe, a highly specialized process that results in uniform debris. These remains were composed of high quality Danian flint and were situated in a discrete area adjacent to one of the large stones. The second category was the unsystematic removal of flakes from to produce a piece that had the rough shape of a square axe, but was left behind instead of being used. These remains were of a low quality flint that often exhibits fissures and irregularities, and were scattered throughout the site with no clear area of concentration. Based on this evidence, Högberg concludes that all of the necessary qualities are present in this assemblage to establish it as a child’s imitation of adult work, and he interprets the site as an adult working with a child watching and imitating. Further, the unsystematic production does not appear to be merely errors of a skilled toolmaker because he or she would not consistently make these methodological and technological misinterpretations, but would only make occasional striking errors.
This case study provides a unique glimpse into the process of socialization of a child through imitation of adult work. Based on these observations, some conclusions can be made regarding imitation and play. From the perspective of the child, the production of an axe provided an opportunity for play, and from the perspective of the adult, this play did not severely interfere with work, making it possible for the child to be present. It appears that play and work in this case were not separated, and at least part of the schooling occurred through active participation.
Högberg presents a unique and inspirational case study showing a probable case of imitation in lithic manufacture. Although evidence of a single event, such as the creation of a Neolithic square-sectioned axe, will not lay out a method for the search for children in the archaeological record, it provides an example of the type of evidence that could be looked over of not analysed in such a way as to demonstrate differences in systematic and unsystematic production.
A next step may be to define the differences that would be expected between the material record of playful imitation and the instruction of novice flint knappers. Given that imitation without instruction produces a specific type of error, namely methodological and technological misinterpretations, it may be possible to gain an understanding of the types errors an instructed novice will make. For example, these might be errors in the correct application of force and striking direction rather than a misunderstanding of the method and technology themselves.
The value of this paper lies in its discussion of play as a universal human behaviour that will be expressed in a culturally specific manner. Imitation as a type of play is both an important socialization process and very relevant to archaeologists when attempting to see children in the material record. Defining play and imitation as a cross-cultural childhood behaviour is extremely significant to the study of children in anthropology and will be a useful framework for future studies.
Hogberg, Anders.
2008. Playing with
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