The concept of craft specialization has important implications for social organization of complex hunter-gatherer populations. However, how does craft specialization materialize and how is it organized within a cultural system? What are the socioeconomic influences of independent and attached specialization in social development and how are they observable in the archaeological record. How do anthropologist generally differentiate between these two concepts of specialized activities and are these generalization applicable to all situations? Jeanne Arnold and Ann Munns attempt to explore complex aspects of Chumash organization through analyses of shell-bead manufacture in southern California. Specifically, they want to discover how specialization arose and its role in the formation of a social hierarchy.
The traditional definitions of independent specialists entails specialists that are producing typically utilitarian goods or services for a general, unspecified population. General assumptions indicate that independent specialization arises out of an innate need when conditions lead to resource variability or inability to sustain a population with subsistence needs. Whereas, attached specialists are individuals that produce prestige goods or services under the patronage of others, who in turn control the distribution of products. Attached specialization is a product of political activities of a coercive elite class, and as such, are typically located within close proximity to elite structures. It is these basic assumptions about specialization and the role of specialization on social organization that Arnold and Munns wish to examine in relation to the Chumash of the Channel Islands through the context of shell bead production.
They performed an analysis of 12 large samples of bead manufacturing detritus and bead blanks in order to quantify a chronological order for the locations of bead production. Based on their results, they concluded that Late Period mainland sites demonstrated the location of finished bead production in both residential and burial contexts. There is also little evidence of actual manufacture of shell beads at these sites. Thus, indicating that mainland sites were consumers in a market exchange of prestige items. Whereas, Santa Cruz Island coastal villages from that Late Period contain large quantities of shell bead production waste in relation to few finished products. This pattern is indicative of a specialized production area.
Their results indicate that there is a significant increase in demand by mainland sites for finished beads from the Middle to Late Periods. The authors conclude from these results that as production demands increased so was the need for specialized production. However, specialized production zones were tethered more to resources and the ability to distribute products, rather than proximity to elite patrons. Even though aspects of shell bead production fall within the category of attached specialist, the traditional definition does not fully work. Therefore, they deemed Channel Island shell bead production a peripherally attached specialist activity.
Arnold and Munns provide a valuable distinction between traditional definitions of specialized activities and how they actually fit when attached to a real world production scenario. There simply is not the ability to pigeonhole concepts of specialization and its role in social organization to every cultural entity. Social relationships will distinctly very from group to group. Arnold and Munns analysis of Chumash shell bead production clearly define the role of consumers and producers; however, fall short in defining the formation of social hierarchy within the Chumash population. They indicate only that elites did not directly oversee production, but rather controlled distribution. This article and analysis serves as a strong foundation for understanding the fundament nature of specialization, but seems to be only the first step in a larger, comprehensive understanding of specialized production within social organization.
Arnold, Jeanne E. and Ann Munns
1994 Independent or Attached Specialization: The organization of Shell Bead Production in California. Journal of Field Archaeology 21(4): 473-489.
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